Kelantan Sultanate

1. History

Little is known about the early years of Kel

antan history. Some records

and notes kept by the European and the Chinese people snap only parts of Kelantan‘s picture in the past. They tell us abo

ut the origin of Kelantan as an administered land. Below are the aforementioned brie

f records:

1. According to the records of Claudius Ptolemy, the Greek geographer and astronomer, in his bo
   ok Geography of Eastern Asia written in the second century, ther
   e are three locations laid in the East shore of Semenanjung Melayu (Malay Peninsula): “K
   
   ole Polis”, “Primula”, and “Tharra”.
2. G.E. Gerini, an Italian researcher, said that “Kole Polis” located in Kelantan. He contended that the name of Kelantan is derived from two combined words: “Kolo” and “Thana” or “Tanah” to become “Kolathana”, “Kolamtanah”, or “Kolantan”.
3. The Chinese writings, since the 6^th century, have mentioned Kelantan in various ways. In the Liang Kingdom period (502-557 A.D), the Chinese said “Tann-Tann”, referring to Kelantan. While in the period of Sung Kingdom (960-1279 A.D), Kelantan was called as “Chi-lan-chau” or “Chi-lan-tan”. In the early 17^th century, the Chinese said “Ko-lan-tan”, or “Ku-lan-tan”, all of which refer to Kelantan.
4. Besides “Tan-Tan” or “Tann-Tann”, there is a land often mentioned by the Chinese, namely “Chit-tu”, meaning Negeri Tanah Merah (The Red Land). It was associated with Negeri Kelantan.

Many geographers, based on topographic and geographic consideration, contended that Chit-tu (Tanah Merah) or Raktamrittika was the Kelantan. A European historian, Paul Wheatley, was in line with the premise that Chit-tu was located in Kelantan. He based his statement on the early years of Raktamrittika Kingdom history, established by King Gautama in the 6^th century. The King was the son of King Kalahtana. Chit-tu once was one of the Funan Kingdom‘s colonies. Kelantan, in 1225 A.D, had ever been under the authority of Crivijaya Kingdom.

Historically, in 1411 A.D. (814 H) Negeri Kelantan was ruled by the first King named King Kumar. Some historians still have wider debate over the genealogy of King Kumar. There is only one record confirming the King Kumar‘s relations with one of the Chinese Kings. For example, in 1412 A.D, it is stated that King Kumar had ever received gifts included silk and diplomatic letters from a Chinese King

King Kumar, who passed away in 1418 A.D, was succeeded by Sultan Iskandar Shah, the grandson of King Culan. According to the manuscript of Sejarah Melayu (Malay History), Culan was the King of Negeri Ganggayu or Klang Kio, located in the upper course of Johor River. Another reference, Ringakasan Cetera Kelantan (Summary of Kelantan History) written by Nik Mahmud Ismail, revealed another opinion saying that King Culan was the King of Negeri Perak. Up to now, still not found yet the sufficient data confirming what kinds of relation between King Kumar and Sultan Iskandar Shah. In addition, there is no sufficient evidence explaining the way Islam came to the land of Kelantan, considering that the second ruler, Sultan Iskandar Shah, had embraced Islam.

After Sultan Iskandar passed away in 1465 A.D, the Kelantan was leaded by Sultan Mansur Shah. There are three versions of premises confirming the cognation of Sultan Mansur Shah with Sultan Iskandar Shah. The first version, cited from “Sejarah Melayu”, mentioned that Sultan Mansur Shah was the son of Sultan Iskandar Shah‘s cousin. The second version, from “Ringkasan Cetera Kelantan”, contended that Sultan Mansur Shah was the son of Sultan Iskandar Shah. The last version, “Sejarah Negeri-Negeri Melayu” (History of Malay Kingdoms) written by Haji Muhammad Sidi Haji Muhd. Rasyid, mentioned that Sultan Mansur Shah was the cousin of Sultan Iskandar Shah.

The Kelantan Sultanate entered its golden age during the period of Sultan Mansur Shah, especially in terms of its economic growth, depending largely on the agricultural sector. The Kelantan‘s prestige was heard to the Malacca Sultanate, ruled then by Sultan Mahmud Shah. In 1477 A.D., he ordered the armed troops to attack the Kelantan Sultanate. Sultan Mansur Shah, at the time, had three sons: Raja Gombak, Unang Kening who married later on to Sultan Mahmud Shah, and Cubak. Sultan Mahmud Shah and Unang Kening had three sons, namely Raja Mah (daughter), Raja Muzaffar (son), and Raja Dewi (daughter). Raja Muzaffar who was born in 1505 A.D., became the Sultan Perak I with title Muzaffar Shah (1528-1540 A.D.). Raja Gombak replaced his father, Sultan Mansur Shah, who passed away in 1526 A.D., as the forth Sultan Kelantan, bearing the title Sultan Gombak (1526-1584 M).

In 1548 A.D, Raja Ahmad, bearing the title of Sultan Ahmad, replaced the position of Sultan Gombak, who passed away, as the next Sultan. Sultan Ahmad, the grandson of Sultan Gombak, married to Cik Banun, the youngest daughter of Kelantan Nobleman Seri Nara Diraja. They had a daughter named Cik Wan Kembang. When Sultan Ahmad passed away in 1588 A.D., Cik Wan Kembang had been four years old. Therefore, Raja Hussin, the son of Raja Umar bearing the title of Sultan Ala Jalla Abdul Jalil Shah (King Johor, 1580-1597 A.D.), was asked to come to Kelantan to be the next (the sixth) Sultan of Kelantan with title Sultan Hussin. However, another source reveals that the coronation of Sultan Hussin was not proposed by then Kelantan administration. By then, in the 16^th century, the Kelantan was one of the colonies of Johor.

After Raja Hussin passed away in 1610 A.D., Cik Wan Kembang had reached the mature age and been installed as the seventh Sultan of Kelantan (1610-1663 A.D.). She was the first female Sultan in Kelantan. When she ruled the Sultanate, he settled in Mount Chinta Wangsa, Ulu Kelantan, located about 40 kilometers to the South East of Kuala Krai. The strategic location of the central Sultanate lured the domestic merchantmen and foreign traders to visit Kelantan, boosting its economic growth.

During the period of Cik Wan Kembang, a small kingdom, named Jembal, had established in the North-east part of Kelantan. The Jembal Kingdom was ruled by Raja Sakti (1638 A.D). He was the foster child of Raja Bersiung Kedah. Raja Sakti died in 1649 A.D., and be replaced by his son, Raja Loyor. Cik Wan Kembang established close relation with the Jembal Kingdom especially with Raja Loyor. She, even, had adopted Princess Saadong, the daughter of Raja Loyor, as her foster daughter. After Cik Wan Kembang died in 1663 A.D., the Kelantan Sultanate was no longer ruled by the offspring of Sultan Iskandar Shah. The Kelantan‘s ruler also no longer used Sultan, but King to name the higher position. The Kelantan afterwards was ruled by the Kings of Jembal.

Regarding Princess Saadong, the foster daughter of Cik Wan Kembang, she married to King Abdullah, her cousin, after being persuaded by Cik Wan. They lived in Tegayong City (Tanah Serendah Sekebun Bunga Cherang Tegayong), and then moved to Jelasin City in Mahligai Region. She had ever been kidnapped by Commander of Siam named Phraya Decho to be brought to Narai Maharaja Siam (1656-1688 A.D.). The reason for kidnapping is still unknown. When going back to Kelantan, Princess Saadong had several arguments with her husband. King Abdullah died of puncture of hair bun‘s Saadong. It was done unintentionally. Afterwards, Princess Saadong installed King Abdul Rahim, King Abdullah‘s brother, as the Sultan in Mahligai City.

Not much literature confirm the ruling period of King Loyor. He passed away in 1675 A.D. He was replaced by his brother, Temanggung Umar, bearing the title King Umar (1675-1719 A.D.). He had five sons, namely Raja Kecil Sulung, Raja Ngah with title Raja Hudang, Raja Nah, Raja Sakti, and Raja Pah. Being left by King Umar in 1719 A.D., Long Besar or Long Bahar was installed as the next King in Jembal (1719-1733 A.D.). This installation was proposed by the oldest daughter of King Umar, Raja Kecil Sulung. Long Bahar was the son of Raja Petani (Wan Daim) who bore the title of Datuk Pengkalan Tua. He had ever made a journey to the Kelantan Sultanate, together with his father. Long Bahar married to Raja Pah, the daughter of Sultan Omar.

Long Bahar passed away in 1733 A.D. His position was replaced by his son, Long Sulaiman or Wan Anom Long Nik, bearing the title of Mas Kelantan. Long Sulaiman had three sons namely Long Yunus, Tuan Dewi, and Tuan Kembang. The last married to Long Deraman, the son of Tuan Senik Getting who ruled Legeh region. In 1756 A.D., a mysterious war broke out, aiming at overthrowing Long Sulaiman, who was murdered in the war. His position was then replaced by his cousin, Long Pendak as Raja Kubang Labu. Whereas his brother, Long Muhammad, was installed as Raja Muda.

In 1758 A.D., Long Pendak passed away, murdered by Long Deraman for taking revenge. Long Pendak was accused of killing his own wife and Long Deraman‘s brother named Tengku Tengah. Long Muhammad, then, replaced the Sultan Position, becoming the King in Kubang Labu City. During his period, some wars and conflicts broke out between Long Muhammad, who was assisted by Long Deraman, and Long Yunus, who was assisted by Long Gaffar, prince of King Reman in Hulu Perak. In 1762 A.D., both Long Muhammad and Long Deraman were killed in a fierce war. Finally, Long Yunus gained the full control of Kubang Labu Kingdom. As a reward, Long Yunus appointed Long Gaffar as Perdana Menteri (Prime Minister) in Kelantan who ruled from Jeram to Pasir Tumbuh.

Long Yunus took the lead of Kelantan Sultanate between 1775 A.D and 1794 A.D. He was famous for his great capability in unifying the whole territory of Kelantan, which was once separated from the central Sultanate. He could make them submit to the one governmental system.

2. Sultans of Kelantan

Below are the Sultans who had ever ruled the Kelantan Sultanate. The list is codified systematically according to the tenure of each Sultan:

1. King Kumar (1411-1418 A.D)
2. Sultan Iskandar (1418-1465 A.D)
3. Sultan Mansur Shah (1465-1526 A.D)
4. Sultan Gombak (1526-1584 A.D)
5. Sultan Ahmad (1584-1588 A.D)
6. Sultan Hussin (1588-1610 A.D)
7. Cik Wan Kembang (1610-1663 A.D)
8. Raja Loyor (1649-1675 A.D)
9. Raja Umar (1675-1719 A.D)
10. Long Besar or Long Bahar (1719-1733 A.D)
11. Long Sulaiman (1733-1756 A.D)
12. Long Pendak (1756-1758 A.D)
13. Long Muhammad (1758-1762 A.D)
14. Long Gaffar (1762-1775 A.D)
15. Long Yunus (1775-1794 A.D)
16. Sultan Muhammad (1794-1839 A.D)
17. Sultan Muhammad II or Sultan Mulut Merah (1839-1886 A.D)
18. Sultan Muhammad III (1886-1900 A.D)
19. Sultan Muhammad IV or Long Senik bin (son of) Long Kundur (1900-1920 A.D)
20. Sultan Ismail (1920-1944 A.D)
21. Sultan Ibrahim (1944-1960 A.D)
22. Sultan Yahya Petra (1960-1979 A.D)
23. Sultan Ismail Petra (1979 A.D - now)

3. Sultanate Period

The Kelantan Sultanate have existed for about six centuries. During that period, Kelantan had experienced the political cleavage, beginning from the period of Cik Wan Kembang (1610-1663 A.D). The separation commenced when Jembal Kingdom proclaimed its independence from the Kelantan. By then, Kelantan was gradually overwhelmed with the wave of Patani wanderers who migrated from their region. The migrant could dominate the government in the period of Long Bahar. Long Yunus, the 15^th ruler, could finally restore the Kelantan Sultanate‘s power and made it as a unified territory.

In the history of modern Malaysia, the Kelantan Sultanate is one of the 14 Negeri (States) under the federation of Malaysia Kingdom. Kelantan is also called as Negeri Kelantan Dar`ul Naim, which is ruled now by Sultan Ismail Petra (Since 1979 A.D)

4. Sultane Territory

The territory of Kelantan Sultanate covered the below region: Gua Musang (8,177 km²), Kuala Krai (2,277 km²), Jeli (1,318 km²), Tanah Merah (880 km²), Pasir Mas (569 km²), Machang (527 km²), Pasir Puteh (424 km²), Kota Bharu (394 km²), Bachok (279 km²), and Tumpat (177 km²). The Kelantan Sultanate located North-East of Semenanjung Malaysia (Malay peninsula), facing directly the South China Sea, bordered by Southern Thailand.

5. Sultanate Structure

The structure of Kelantan Sultanate was inherited from the traditional Malay political system, in which the Sultan held the highest authority of Sultanate mandate. In administering the government, he was assisted by three clusters of Sultan assistants, namely:

1. Cluster of Sultan‘s relatives; they are the offspring of the Sultan.
2. Cluster of noblemen; Those people bore title syed, nik, and wan.
3. Cluster of commoners who hold high position in the Kelantan sultanate.

Their main job was to do all of their responsibilities and to carried out the direct order of Sultan. Their responsibilities included the palace‘s custom affairs, administration, financial, legal, security, and foreign relations. One of the main jobs for the cluster of Sultan‘s relatives is to install the Sultan who will rule the Sultanate.

The above structure was effectively stipulated at the end of the 18th century, during the period of Long Yunus (1775-1794 A.D). He appointed his sons as such: Long Ismail (as Raja Muda), Long Jenal (as Treasurer), Long Tan (as Temenggung). His close friend, Long Ghafar, was appointed as Mangkubumi and Panglima Perang (Commander) bearing the title Tengku Sri Maharaja Perdana Menteri. Besides, there were other for positions: Raja Bukit Pancor (assumed by Long Yunus bin Long Yunus), Tengku Kota (assumed by Long Muda or Tuan Dagang bin Long Yunus), and Dato‘ Kaya Hulubalang (assumed by son of Penghulu Adas).

In the period of Sultan Muhammad the Second, or Sultan Mulut Merah (1839-1886 A.D), the then political structure experienced slight change with some additional positions and new titles, like below:

1. Sultan (Tuan Senik Mulut Merah)
2. Sultan Dewa (Tuan Senik Kota or Tuan Senik Penambang-baharu)
3. Hakim/Judge(Syed Jaafar-baharu)
4. Mufti/Religious Adviser (Tuan Abdul Rahman Muda bin Wan Othman-baharu)
5. Kadi/ (no sufficient data)
6. Perdana Menteri/Prime Minister (Engku Limbat bin Long Jaafar)
7. Pembantu Menteri Besar/Deputy of Prime Minister (Nik Abdul Majid atau Wan Abdul Majid bin Wan Yusuf bersama Nik Yahya)
8. Juru Tulis Diraja (the palace writer) or Setiausaha Sultan (Wan Abdul Kadir)
9. Ketua Istiadat (Head of customary affair) with the title of Dato Megat Mahkota

The Gate in the Balai Besar Palace.

In 1845 A.D, the above political system was changed along with the initiation of Jamaah Ahli Mensyuarat (Discussion team), whose members come from Sultanate officials. The major change was effective after the establishment of Bandar Kota Bharu (City) and Istana Balai Besar (Palace) in 1844 A.D. Below are the job desk for each positions:

1. Financial affairs, administered by:

1. Bendahara (treasurer) (conferred with Tengku before his name if the treasurer is one of Sultan‘s offspring)
2. Seri Maharaja (conferred with Tengku before his name if the treasurer is one of Sultan‘s offspring)
3. Seri Pakerma Raja
4. Seri Akar Raja

2. Military affairs, managed by:

1. Temenggung Aria Pahlawan
2. Seri Nara Diraja
3. Laksamana (Admiral)
4. Seri Kelana Diraja

3. Political affairs, administered by:

1. Seri Paduka Raja
2. Seri Amar Diraja
3. Seri Setia Diraja
4. Seri Diraja

4. Foreign affairs, run by:

1. Biji Sura
2. Biji Wangsa
3. Lela Utama
4. Lela Negara

5. Domestic affairs, arranged by:

1. Kaya Perba
2. Kaya Pahlawan
3. Kaya Hulubalang
4. Kaya Perwira

6. Administrative affairs (in palace), run by:

1. Seri Rakna Diraja
2. Bentara Guna
3. Penghulu Balai

7. Legal affairs, arranged by:

1. Senior Judge (borne by Hakim)
2. Kadi (responsible for Islamic law/Shariah affairs)
3. Hakim (Responsible for non-Shariah affairs)

8. Sultan Consultants:

1. Tengku Bendahara (similar to treasurer)
2. Tengku Temenggung
3. Seri Paduka

The person who would replace the incumbent Sultan bore the title Raja Muda (literally means the Young King). In the Sultan Muhammad the fourth‘s administration (Long Senik bin Long Kundur 1900-1920 A.D), 1911 in exact time, the title of “Raja Kelantan” was given to the candidate Sultan. But in 1944 A.D., by the suggestion of some advisers, the title was no longer used. It was so since many people assumed that the candidate would take the Sultanate‘s responsibilities in the absence of Sultan when going abroad. The people thought that Raja Kelantan (Candidate) and Sultan Kelantan (The incumbent Sultan) were the same. Tengku Ibrahim, bearing the title Raja Kelantan, ascended the throne of kelantan Sultanate in June 1944 A.D. The title for the candidate was changed to the previous title: Raja Muda.

6. Socio-cultural Life

According to the 2005 census of central government, the total population of Kelantan Dar`ul Naim amounted about 1,373,173 people, consisting of: Gua Musang (80,167), Kuala Krai (97,836), Jeli (38,185), Tanah Merah (108,228), Pasir Mas (172,692), Machang (82,653), Pasir Puteh (111,001), Kota Bharu (425,294), Bachok (116,128), Tumpat (140,989). The Malay, about 95%, constitutes the biggest majority of Kelantan population, while the rests place the second, the third etc, namely Chinese (3,8%), Indian (0,3%), and others (0,9%). Islam is embraced by most of Kelantan citizens, for about 95 % of total population. Buddha ranks the second (4,4%), Christianity and Hindu the third (0,2% respectively), and other religion (0,2%).

Agriculture and industry are the main livelihood of Kelantan population. In terms of agriculture, the population rely mostly on the sap, oil palm, and paddy. The wood industry, especially round timber, and plywood is the main revenue of Kelantan.

The Kelantan Sultanate had strong relation economically and politically with the Patani Sultanate. Geographically, the two sultanates are very close. In terms of culture, Kelantan adopted a multicultural system, combinative of Malay, Islam, and Siam culture. Among the form of acculturation are folk games of Dikir barat, Main Puteri, Mak Yong, and other. Mak Yong, specifically, is influenced by the culture of Siam, Dikir Barat is largely adopted from Islam, and the Main Puteri came from Hindu-Siam culture. Another unique feature of Kelantan Sultanate is the gastronomic culture, different from Malay cuisine, such as Budu food.

(HQ/ter/106/04-08)

References:

• Hamid, Rogayah A. and Mariyam Salim, Kesultanan Melayu Kelantan, (Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 2006).
• “Kelantan”, in http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelantan, retrieved at January 17th 2008.
• “Kota Bharu”, in http://sklaloh.kelantan.edu.my/kotabharu.htm, retrieved at January 26th 2008.
• “Sejarah Kelantan”, in http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Kelantan, retrieved at Januariy 17th 2008.
• “Sultan-Sultan Kelantan”, in http://www.ppak.kelantan.edu.my/kelantan/kerajaan, retrieved at January 24th 2008.

Photo Credit :

• raykinzoku.fotopages.com
• www.geocities.com

Kedah Sultanate

1. The History

Historically, the early years of Kedah Sultanate are difficult to be traced back. Despite their vast territory and long existence, very few written records about the Kedah Sultanate have been discovered. Most of what we know about them today comes from the information telling us that the Kedah Sultanate (Kesultanan Kedah) was the continuation of Kedah State (Negeri Kedah). If there is description about the beginning of the Sultanate, it is only an assumption. Therefore, the history of Kedah state will be presented first, followed by the establishment of Kedah Sultanate.

1. 1. The period of Kedah State`s Establishment

The construction of the harbor in the fifth century marked the early history of Kedah State, which later on took different political institution: the Sultanate. As the harbor increasingly developed and flourished, the region extended and transformed into the most visited place by many foreigners for either business or other things. The geographically strategic location of the harbor made it even more promising for the traders. Surrounded by India, and Arabic countries in the West and China in the East, the harbor possessed the power to attract numbers of merchants from those neighboring countries, and even from other areas such as Persia and Europe.

In the region, there are some prehistoric evidences, such as cavernous hill, confirming that the Kedah State had ever been there. Those hills, used as settling place by the prehistoric ancestors, can be found in Kubang Pasu, Kota Star, and Baling. In addition, there is a beautiful mount located in the coast, which can be seen by the sailors happened to come across the Indian Ocean.

The early establishment of Kedah State was largely influenced by the surrounding countries such as Funan State and non-neighboring Kingdoms such as Crivijaya. Its political institution and administration originated from the Hinduism and Buddhism of India. Both religions played important role in the shaping of Kedah`s commoners who embraced them.

The coming of Islam to the Kedah State, at last, brought about the political institution and administration. At the societal level, the conversion to Islam was a commonplace since the first Hijriyah. This historical fact is strengthened by the coming of Arabic merchant to the region. By the ninth and tenth centuries, some Chinese Muslims, accused of rebellion against the regime, had fled to the Kedah State, looking for the asylum. The rebellion, in 878 A.D, also involved many Arabian merchantmen. Another historical evidence is the tombstone in Tanjung Inggris, Langgar, which was found in 1962 A.D. The name of Sheikh Abdul Kadir Ibn Husin Shah Alam (sect), on the 29^th of Hijriyah (651 A.D.) or 290 A.H. (920 A.D.) was carved on the tombstone.

The Islamization of several kings in the Kedah State had transpired since the coming of Islam to the country. Many writers recorded the Islamization of the first king in the Kedah State as an important event signed the new era of the state. Two versions of who was the first King Islamized are recounted. According to al-Tarikh Salasilah Negeri Kedah, the first king in the Kedah State, Seri Paduka Maharaja Durbar Raja, was Islamized by Sheikh Abdullah bin Sheikh Ahmad al-Qaumiri in 531 A.H. (1136 A.D.). He was named with different name afterwards, Sultan Muzaffar Shah. Since then, The Kedah State was known as Darul Aman. Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa narrates different story. Sheikh Abdullah al-Yamani had ever been commanded by his teacher, Sheikh Abdullah Baghdad, to Islamize the king of Kedah, Raja Phra Ong Mahwangsa. Based on the story of Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa, Sheikh Abdullah al-Yamani had ever been fixated by a devil during his journey to the Kedah State. The devil tempted the King Phra Ong Mahwangsa to take wine and drink it. However, Sheikh Abdullah al-Yamani could overcome the devil`s temptation. All of sudden, he was in front of the King Phra Ong Mahwangsa and directly asked him to convert to Islam. Phra Ong Mahwangsa changed his name to Sultan Muzaffar Shah after embracing Islam.

1. 2. The Period of Kedah Sultanate Establishment

There is no comprehensible evidence to depict the early establishment of Kedah Sultanate. Based on the traditional history of Kedah State, written in the period of Islam, the sultanate was formed as cultural acculturation of the outsiders` influences. Two big cultures, Arabic-Islam and Malay, were major dominant cultures. The palace`s writers intended to break the relationship with the Hinduism-Buddhism cultures of India, and opened the window to the Arabian-Islam cultures to enter the Kedah State. However, the cultural influences of Buddhism-Hinduism were still evident in the formation of Kedah State.

The references of the traditional history narrate us the existence of “Manusia Agung” (Great Man), who initiated the Kedah Sultanate. He was considered as the founding father and his successors were the legitimate heir to the state. However, many conflicts and civil wars, for various factors, transpired throughout the succession of rulers.

There are two main references supplying the information on the ancestors of the Sultan of Kedah: a 1928 compiled al-Tarikh Salasilah Negeri Kedan (ASNK) and Hikayat Merong Mahwangsa (HMM). Dato` Wan Shamsudin Mohammad Yusof (www.mykedah2.com) said, ASNK is the only reliable historical reference providing an insight into the origin of the Kedah rulers. Another reason for it is that ASNK was written by a native Malay namely Muhammad Hasan bin Dato` Kerani Muhammad Arshad. According to Dato` Wan Shamsudin Mohammad Yusof, HMM could not be accounted as the main reference of the genealogy of the Kedah Sultanate for several reasons. The main reason is that HMM is a “historiography” which has identical characteristics with the other literatures such as Hikayat Raja-raja Pasai, Sulalatus-Salatin or Sejarah Melayu (the History of Malay). The exact time and date, the factual evidences, and the logical timeline are not the focus of such literatures. Despite the differences, the history of Sultan`s ancestors will be explained in the next part.

Firstly, based on the Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa, the genealogy of Kedah`s Sultans are linked to the Rom`s ancestors. The founding father of the sultanate was Merong Mahawangsa who had ever defeated Maharaja Rom, and he then got married with Puteri Maharaja from China. Merong Mahawangsa, together with his entourage, had ever been ambushed by some pirates in the water areas of Kedah, making him drifted ashore. In the following time, he was appointed by the Kedah people as the king of Kedah.

Secondly, based on the al-Tarikh Salasilah Negeri Kedah, the Kedah Sultanate originated from the Persian Kingdom, Gumarun. The founding father of Kedah Sultanate was Maharaja Durbar Raja who had ever escaped from Gumarun. They fled through the sea to the Kedah. The people of Kedah then appointed Maharaja Durbar as their king.

Besides the two versions mentioned earlier, there is another version that try to shed some light on the phenomenon of the “Manusia Agung”. It is Mustafa Tam (1962) who links the establishment of Kedah to the Dynasty of Maurya in India. Howewer, he doesn`t explain in detail about the origin of both countries.

2. The Sultans

Prior to listing the Sultans of Kedah, this section will reveal first the rulers of Kedah State, the seed of the Kedah Sultanate.

2. 1. The Kings of the Kedah State

The following part will explain the kings who had ever ruled the Kedah State, despite the insufficient data telling their tenures. Two books, al-Tarikh Salasilah Negeri Kedah and Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa, are the main references.

A. Based on the al-Tarikh Salasilah Negeri Kedah, the kings of the Kedah State are below:

1. Maharaja Durbar Raja
2. Maharaja Druja Raja
3. Maharaja Maha Dewa
4. Maharaja Kerna Durja
5. Seri Paduka Maharaja Kerna
6. Seri Paduka Maharaja Dewa
7. Seri Paduka Maharaja Derma Raja
8. Seri Paduka Maharaja Maha Jiwa
9. Seri Paduka Maharaja Durbar Raja

B. Based on the Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa, the kings of the Kedah State are below:

1. Raja Merong Mahawangsa
2. Raja Merong Mahapudisat
3. Raja Seri Mahawangsa
4. Raja Seri Maha Inderawangsa
5. Raja Ong Maha Perita Deria
6. Raja Phra Ong Mahaputisat
7. Raja Phra Ong Mahawangsa

2. 2. The Sultans of the Kedah Sultanate

Like the Kings of Kedah State, there is a dissent on the Sultans. However, the difference lies only in the number. The number of Sultans ruling the Kedah Sultanate, according to Tuanku Fariddin Haji bin Tungku Mansor (1957), is 27 Sultans in total. According to Dato` Wan Shamsudin Mohd. Yusuf, there were 28 Sultans in total who had ever been crowned, including Tunku Dhiauddin Raja Muda Kayang as the Sultan, who was regarded as Pemangku Raja by Tuanku Fariddin Haji bin Tungku Mansor). The following are the 28 Sultans of Kedah:

1. The First Sultan al-Mudzaffar Shah (1136-1179 A.D.)
2. Sultan Mu`adzam Shah (1179-1201 A.D.)
3. Sultan Muhammad Shah (1204-1236 A.D.)
4. Sultan Mazzil Shah (1236-1280 A.D.)
5. The First Sultan Mahmud Shah (1280-1321 A.D.)
6. Sultan Ibrahim Shah (1321-1373 A.D.)
7. The First Sultan Sulaiman Shah (1373-1422 A.D.)
8. The First Sultan Ataullah Muhammad Shah (1422-1472 A.D.)
9. The First Sultan Muhammad Jiwa Zainal Azilin (1472-1506 A.D.)
10. The Second Sultan Mahmud Shah (1506-1546 A.D.)
11. The Second Sultan Mudzaffar Shah (1546-1602 A.D.)
12. The Second Sultan Sulaiman Shah (1602-1625 A.D.)
13. Sultan Rijaluddin Muhammad Shah (1625-1651 A.D.)
14. Sultan Muhyiddin Mansor Shah (1651-1661 A.D.)
15. Sultan Dziauddin Mukarram Shah (1661-1687 A.D.)
16. The Second Sultan Ataullah Muhammad Shah (1687-1687 A.D.)
17. The First Sultan Abdullah al-Mu`adzam Shah (1698-1706 A.D.)
18. The First Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin Halim Shah. He was the treasurer of the sultanate or the Pemangku Sultan (1706-1709 A.D.)
19. The Second Sultan Muhammad Jiwa Zainal Azilin Mu`adzam Shah (1710-1778 A.D.)
20. The Second Sultan Abdullah Mukarran Shah (1778-1797 A.D.)
21. Sultan Dziauddin (1797-1803 A.D.)
22. The Second Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin Halim Shah (1803-1843 A.D.)
23. Sultan Zainal Rashid al-Mu`adzam Shah (1843-1854 A.D.)
24. Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin Mukarram Shah (1854-1879 A.D.)
25. Sultan Zainal Rashid al-Mu`adzam Shah (1879-1881 A.D.)
26. Sultan Abdul Hamid Halim Shah (1881-1943 A.D.)
27. Sultan Badlishah (1943-1958 A.D.)
28. Sultan Abdul Halim Mu`adzam Shah (1958-present)

3. The Sultanate Period

The Sultanate of Kedah has established since 1136 A.D. and still exists up to now, making it lasted for about nine centuries. The period of Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin Mukarram (1854-1879 A.D.) was very concerned on expanding the economic growth and infrastructure development, which still can be seen until now. One of Kedah`s Sultans, Sultan Abdul Hamid Halim Shah (1881-1943 A.D), made a unique approach to the development of Kedah. In the beginning of his rule, he made visits to some countries such as Thailand, India, Burma, and European countries. He argued, by knowing other political institutions and having insight into their economic system would help him understand the applicable system to build and strengthen his country at best.

4. The Sultanate Territory

Unlike the data on the contemporary era, only meager proportion of information tells us about the territory under the old Kedah Sultanate. The territory of contemporary Kedah Sultanate is 9,425 km² , divided into eleven districts: Baling (1529 km²), Bandar Bahru (269 km²), Kota Setar (665 km²), Kuala Muda (923 km²), Kubang Pasu (948 km²), Kulim (765 km²), Langkawi (467 km²), Padang Terap (1357 km²), Pendang (626 km²), Sik (1635 km²), and Yan (242 km²).

5. The Sultanate Structure

The political institution of Kedah Sultanate provided the Sultan with the absolute power and authority to run the government, with Adat Temenggung (customary law) and Shariah (Islamic Jurisprudence) as its basic references. Besides, four kanun (regulations) are adopted for the Sultan`s guideline. R.O Winstedt collected the manuscripts of the four kanun and named them respectively as Undang-undang Pelabuhan 1650, Kanun Tambera Dato` Paduka Tuan, Hukum Kanun Dato Kota Star, and kanun on palace. The last kanun specifically discusses about the way of the Sultan was crowned and how to ask for marriage.

Being responsible for the Sultanate administration, the Sultan was assisted by Pembesar Tradisional (literally means customary noblemen). They led the central and district territories. The second place after the Sultan was Raja Muda, who should not necessarily come from Sultan`s offspring. His position was the same as the contemporary vice president, responsible for the whole administration which had direct structure under the Sultan.

In the central government, the Pembesar Tradisional assumed important position such as treasurer, pembesar empat, pembesar lapan, pembesar enam belas, and pahlawan hulubalang (the commander in chief). The pembesar empat were Tumenggung (who was responsible for the domestic affairs), laksamana (who has responsible for the security in the water territory), penghulu bendahari (responsible for the financial affairs), and syahbandar (responsible for the security of harbor). In the period of the third Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin (1853-1879 A.D.), some positions were downsized to give much focus on the central position. In the period of Sultan Abdul Hamis, the position of the treasurer, minister, temenggung, and others were dismissed.

In the local government, the Sultan appointed some Pembesar Daerah (local noblemen) monitoring the administration of Lembah Sungai region. They were given mandate to run their regions by different systems, assisted by some local officials including community leaders. In 1905 A.D, the local government officials, later on known as pembesar jajahan and then pegawai negeri (civil servant), were modernized.

6. The Socio-Cultural Life

As the insufficient data on the old social structure and life of Kedah, only the contemporary socio-cultural life is presented below.

Kedah is densely populated by the Malayans, making it as the largest race settling in Kedah. The rest is placed by Chinese and Indian people. The census of population in 2003 revealed the inhabitants of Kedah: Malay (1,336,352), Chinese (252,987), Indian (122,911), non-citizens (35,293), and the others (27,532). Agricultural sector, industries, and civil servants are the main livelihoods of the majority of Kedah citizens.

(HQ/ter/ 99/03-08)

References:

• Mohd. Isa Othman, “Kesultanan Kedah: Salasilah dan Pemerintahannya”, in Prosiding Seminar Antarbangsa Kesultanan Melayu Nusantara: Sejarah dan Warisan, Kuantan, Pahang Darul Makmur, 8-11 of May, 2005.
• www.kedah.gov.my.
• www.mykedah2.com.
• www.ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Kedah.

Credit photo : www.asiaexplorers.com

CHINESE MATHEMATICS

1. The Chinese understand numbers. Very early they invented the computer - not the electronic one - but the abacus.

2. The abacus in the hands of experts can outrun the electronic calculator.

3. The ability to calculate fast contributes much to the skills in business. The brain deduces problems much faster.

4. Chinese expert demonstrated to me how pre-school children could be taught to mentally multiply or divide big figures almost instantaneously. They know how to use the abacus for quick calculations. When asked to add, subtract, multiply or divide, they mentally move the beads of the computer in their minds. That way they were able to almost immediately give the answers.

5. The professor told me that the children were ordinary children, It was his system of mental calculation which enabled them to perform.

6. I asked the Ministry of Education to use Prof Xu Si Zhong's method for our primary schools. I don't really know the results.

7. The Professor came to see me recently to introduce improvements he had made to his method. I must say that his new method is even better.

8. It strikes me that if someone were to invest a small sum of money to put up a classroom for pre-school children to be taught mathematics using this method, there might be parents interested to send their children for a few hours a week to learn. I think the children will enjoy learning mathematics and the use of the abacus.

9. I will be happy to put interested private kindergartens and primary schools in contact with Prof Xu Si Zhong.

THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION OF MALAYA

The Japanese first set foot in Malaya on 8th December 1941 and with a force of some 150,000 men captured the whole of Malaya and Singapore from the hands of the British within ten weeks through their ingenuity and meticulous planning.

Knowing very well that the British had neglected the north, and prepared instead, for an attack in Singapore by building powerful defenses to ward off threats from the sea, the Japanese stunned their enemies by advancing from the north. Their attack first began in the Kota Bahru located north of Malaya, and Singgora and Patani, located in the southern part of Thailand.

Fearing that they would have to contend with the Thais, the Japanese forced them into signing a Treaty of Alliance three days later, on 11th December, to ensure that their invasion southwards into Malaya and Singapore would not be hampered by attacks from the Thais in the north.

As thousands of bicycles ridden by Japanese soldiers advanced to the southern tip of the Peninsula, the British suffered severe losses when their only two battleships in the area, the Prince of Wales and the Repulse, were bombed by the Japanese and consequently sunk on 10th December in the east coast of Malaya. Simultaneously, Singapore was also bombed and the coast of Kelantan invaded.
Penang fell into Japanese’ hands one week later, Kuala Lumpur, on 7th January 1942 followed by Johor at the end of January. The final blow landed on the British when Singapore was captured on 15th February 1942. In its humiliating defeat, the British surrendered to the Japanese, 80,000 troops and all, on the same day.


1.4.1 The Reasons Behind Japan’s Success
The Japanese had done their homework well, gathering important information on the British forces and strongholds in Malaya and knowing very well that Singapore could only be conquered if an attack came from the land.

The British were therefore, taken by surprise in Singapore, since they had prepared their artillery at their base and harbour to defend themselves from attack from the sea and were not in time to reverse their weapons to counter an attack from the mainland, across the Straits of Johor.

To make matters worse, the British were void of any hope in terms of naval superiority when the Repulse and Prince of Wales were sunk within a week after the Japanese first set foot in Malaya.

Venturing southwards in the peninsula by land gave the Japanese another advantage, since they were already trained and experienced in jungle warfare, after many years of war with China. They knew the methods to avoid various problems of fighting in the jugle, like sunstroke and malaria. They were also fearless, dedicated, and willing to die while championing the cause of their emperor. These could be clearly seen in the fearless actions of the kamikaze warriors who would fly their planes straight into enemy battleships and perish in their endeavour.

Using bicycles to make their way south also proved useful to the Japanese, since it enabled their troops to salvage the supplies they lacked, such as ammunition and equipment, from enemy forces which retreated from the fighting.

Although the Japanese were short of these supplies and depended on retreating enemy troops to obtain them, they possessed modern battle equipment, which served them well, especially in the air, the most apparent being the Japanese zero fighters. The Royal Air Force with their out-of-date planes, was certainly no match for the Japanese when it came to battles in the air and was defeated within 24 hours by the Japanese Air Force.

The Japanese also reaped the benefits from weaknesses in the British administration system in which the local people were encouraged to achieve peaceful progress instead of engaging in fights.

Hence, together with the Malay regiment of volunteers from the Malay states, and the Commonwealth forces comprising British, Australian and Indian troops, the British were not prepared to go into war and contend with the expertise and experience of Japanese soldiers.

1.4.2 The impact of the Japanese Occupation
During the Japanese occupation, Malaya suffered a serious decline in economic activities and the citizens were unemployed, impoverished and experienced much hardship. Social problems became a norm in such a situation.

To prevent the Japanese from reaping the toil of the British and progressing in Malaya, the British destroyed many railways, roads and bridges as well as equipment used in the rubber and tin industries.

Inflation rates rose in alarming proportions due to the unlimited printing of Japanese notes, known as "banana money". To add to this, goods became scarce and sold at exorbitant prices in black markets which began to take form.
The local people were badly exploited by the Japanese, who controlled the finances, foodstuff and other resources of the country, channeling them to their military. Consequently, many people suffered malnutrition and died of starvation.
Thousands of Malayans were sent as forced labourers to construct the 250-mile long railway connecting Siam and Burma, known as the Rilway of Death. As many as 40,000 people were tortured, arrested and publicly executed in a massacre which went on for several days.

The Chinese especially, were treated as enemies of Japan and oppressed by the Japanese. Consequently, they suffered much hardship during the latter’s occupation and many of them joined the communist-inspired Malayan Peoples’ Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA).

By displaying their partiality towards the Malays and Indians, the Japanese created an atmosphere of racial disunity and made the Malays resent the economic stronghold possessed by the Chinese in Malaya.

The Japanese also caused racial disunity by using military groups comprising Malays to fight Chinese resistance groups and this situation went on for several years, even after the Japanese occupation.

One good thing did come out of all this, however. Since the Japanese did go to the extent of handing out several administrative posts in the region to the Malays during their occupation, a feeling of nationalism began to burn in the hearts of the Malays and cause them to yearn for independence for Malaya.

The Japanese conquest of Malaya and Singapore also boosted confidence among the citizens of Malaya since it was a clear demonstration that an Asian country could defeat foreign conquerors, and thus, began Malaya’s fight for independence.

CONCLUSION

In looking at the history of colonization in Malaya, we see that internal factors, such as leadership, unity among the citizens of a nation, loyalty, military strength and many other factors, are imperative in determining the future of a country.
As we take a good look at the past, we can conclude that in many incidences, foreign colonization has taken place when the leaders of a country created opened doors for foreign powers to enter.

British Expansion into Malaya and Singapore

1.3 BRITISH COLONIZATION

The British were another important foreign power that came to exert its influence in Malaya. Their presence in the peninsula first began with their attainment of Penang.
The British East India Company, which was based in India during the 18th century, was in dire need of a base to serve as a collection centre, naval point and pier in the Malay states.

Hence, the British were at an advantage when Sultan Muhammad Jiwa of Kedah, came at just the right moment, seeking assistance from them to ward off impending threats from the Bugis.

He was willing to surrender Penang to the British in exchange for their protection. Seizing the opportunity to expand their domain, the East India Company assigned Captain Francis Light to negotiate with the Sultan on behalf of the British. The result was a treaty signed between Francis Light and Sultan Muhammad Jiwa in April 1771, in which the British was granted permission to trade in Kedah in exchange for their protection of the state.

The treaty, however, was short-lived, and annulled when the British refused to provide aid to Kedah in an attack on the Bugis in Selangor.

When Sultan Abdullah ascended the throne of Kedah, the state once again, came under fire. This time, however, from the nation of Siam.

The Sultan wasted no time in appointing Francis Light to negotiate once more with the East India Company and offered Penang Island to the British in exchange for their protection against the Siamese.

Thrilled with the offer of Penang, the Company sought permission from the British government in London to offer protection to Kedah.

The Sultan, on his part, did not allow the British to occupy the island until the Company promised protection. Although Francis Light conveyed these terms to India for approval, the Company rejected Kedah’s request for protection. Despite this, Francis Light took over the island on 11th August 1786, after making an empty promise of protection to the Sultan.

When Sultan Abdullah discovered that the British had lied and refused to grant protection to Kedah, he made several attempts to regain the island of Penang by force, but failed.

Finally, in 1800, a new treaty was drawn up between the British and Kedah, in which the British acquired Province Wellesley (Seberang Perai), in addition to Penang for an annual fee of $10,000 to the Sultan of Kedah.

British reign over Singapore, on the other hand, began with the arrival of Stamford Raffles on the island in 1819. Raffles found Singapore ideal as a trading centre and a base which would shatter the Dutch monopoly of the East Indies.

When the Sultan of Johor failed to recognize an agreement between Raffles and the Temenggong of Johor, in which the British were granted permission to establish a settlement in Singapore, Raffles sought the help of Tengku Hussein. The latter was denied his rightful place on the throne by the Bugis, who appointed his younger brother, Tengku Abdul Rahman, as king instead when the Sultan of Johor died.
Hence, at the Temenggong’s invitation, he was only too willing to go to Singapore from Riau, and be proclaimed the Sultan of Johor by Raffles on 6th February, 1819.
Through cunning on the part of Raffles, the earlier agreement between the Temenggong and himself was made legal by Sultan Hussein, despite a wave of uproar by the Dutch.
The British and Dutch signed the London Treaty on 17th March 1824 to solve the conflicts between themselves in the East and to protect their own interests. It was agreed upon ib the treaty that Singapore, the Malay states and India would come under British rule, while East India and the regions south of Singapore belonged to the Dutch.

The treaty also forbade both parties to establish new settlements or sign agreements with the local heads of other areas.

With Singapore, Malacca and Penang under British rule, the three states were combined into one administration unit known as the Straits Settlements.
Singapore expanded rapidly and overshadowed Penang, which grew at a moderate pace. Malacca, on the other hand, failed to develop and remained backward.
As for the other Malay states, the British strictly enforced a policy of non-intervention and the proceeding five decades after the London Treaty, have often been described as "half a century of inactivity".

1.3.2 From A Policy of Non-Intervention to Intervention
After five decades of practicing a policy of non-intervention, the British found themselves inevitably getting involved in the politics of the Malay states in 1874.
There were many factors that brought about this change and caused the fall of the Malay states into British hands.

Among them were:
(i) piracy problems;
(ii) the civil war caused by constant disputes over succession among the leaders of the state, which made local governments unstable;
(iii) the birth of secret societies that caused frequent fights among them, which stymied growth and economic development of the tin mines.

Consequently, there lacked law and order in the peninsula and this greatly threatened the safety of the huge number of British investors in the Malay states and their trading activities, which mainly involved the tin mining industry.
The British were also concerned about losing investments from the Chinese, who were fearful that the unrest in the Peninsula might harm their trade, since the Chinese were the main source of investments in the Straits Settlements and were vital to the prosperity of Singapore.

Another factor was the occurrence of the Industrial Revolution in Europe during the 19th century. With it came the need to obtain raw and processed materials for the industry as well as markets for the finished products. In their desire to develop their many colonies abroad and monopolize the tin mining industry, the British found it necessary to intervene in the Malay states.

The British were also seeking to protect their interests and trading activities abroad from the intervention of other foreign powers, fearful in particular that Germany, which had defeated France earlier, would set out to establish new conquests in foreign lands.

With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the British now had access to countries like Burma, India, Aden, Malta and Gibraltar, and finally to Hong Kong and China in the east via the Straits of Malacca. To proceed to the east, however, the British would have to contend with leaders of the Malay states. As such, they needed to establish ties with the Malay chiefs to maintain this smooth route to the east.
Through the Suez Canal, the British also found it possible to sail from England to Malaya in 42 days instead of the arduous 116 days prior to the opening of the canal. This resulted in the increase in trading activities in the peninsula and a greater need to control the peninsula.

One other factor that caused the British to intervene in the Malay states was the appointment of Lord Kimberly as the Secretary of State for the colonies. Rooted in the firm belief that the benefits of British rule should be spread throughout the world, Kimberly passed on this belief to Sir Andrew Clarke in the latter’s capacity as Governor of the Straits Settlements, and it was Clarke who prompted direct involvement of the British in the Malay states.

1.3.3 The fall of the Malay states to the British
As mentioned earlier, British intervention in the Malay states were prompted by the unrest in Perak, which included the fights among the secret societies and the succession disputes among the state’s royalties.

The years between 1861 and 1872 saw three separate wars in Perak known as the Larut War I, II and III, involving two secret societies - Ghee Hin and Hai San.
To add to the chaos was the succession dispute between Raja Yusof, Raja Ismail and Raja Abdullah, which prompted them as well as the other Malay chiefs to get involved in the Larut Wars.

Finally, in 1873, Raja Abdullah decided to take matters into his own hands by writing to Sir Andrew Clarke asking for help. This event brought about the signing of the Pangkor Engagement in 1874, in which the Residential System was first established in Perak. This was a historical event which laid the foundation for the establishment of the Resident System in most of the other states in Malaya.
In Selangor, British intervention was prompted by the murder of 8 British subjects in a pirate attack on a Malacca boat in November 1873. The men involved in the slaughter were believed to be employed by one of the sons of Sultan Abdul Samad of Selangor.

In Negeri Sembilan, the British found excuse to exert their influence when civil war broke out due to the rivalry between Dato’ Kelana Sendeng and Dato’ Bandar Kulop Tunggal, the leaders of two of the many districts in Negeri Sembilan. The dispute was on whom had the legal right to collect taxes in the Linggi River, an important trading point in Sungai Ujong. The door was opened to British intervention when Dato’ Kelana Sendeng asked the British for assistance in declaring him the legal head of Sungai Ujong.

There were 2 reasons which contributed to British intervention in Pahang. Firstly, British trade was interrupted due to the civil war. Secondly, the Sultan of Pahang wanted to sell state land to foreign powers to solve his financial problems. However, actual intervention in the form of the implementation of the Resident System only occured in 1888 after a British citizen was murdered outside the Sultan’s palace.

British intervention brought about the Residential System, which was initially established in Perak, to the other states of Selangor, Pahang and Negeri Sembilan. It was a system in which the British extended their reign over the Malay states in an indirect manner. Under this system, the leaders of the state would have to consult the Residents on all matters pertaining to the smooth running of the state, except those involving Malay customs and religion.

Consequently, in 1896, these four states were combined into one administration unit and acknowledged as the Federated Malay States. Each state comprised one Resident, who in turn, had to report to the General Resident.

Unlike these states in Malaya, Johor maintained its independence and succeeded in merely acquiring an Adviser and not a Resident, thanks to the ingenuity of Sultan Abu Bakar and some of his ministers, including Datuk Jaafar, Abdul Rahman bin Andak and Datuk Mohd Salleh bin Perang.

Contrary to the authority of a Resident, an Adviser was not allowed to interfere in the running of the state and force his decisions upon the Sultan or Chief Minister, who still maintained power over their administration.

Hence, Johor, together with the other remaining states like Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan and Terengganu, which were once regarded as vassal territories of Thailand, became known as the non-federated Malay states and accorded British protection as agreed upon in the 1909 Anglo-Thai Treaty between Britain and Thailand.

Like Johor, these states too were assigned a British advisor each, but were still allowed to exercise full authority over the state including matters pertaining to the allocation finances.

The British extended their reign to Sabah only after the British North Borneo Company took over. Before that, Sabah belonged to Brunei since the early 16th century and encountered several different parties including individuals and companies.

Sarawak, on the hand, was relatively stable under the reign of the Brookes, who appointed British officers to monitor a number of strategic points on the river system.

DUTCH INFLUENCE ON MALACCA & THE MALAY STATES

1.2.1 The coming of the Dutch to the East
The starting point of the Dutch’s exploration to the east was the publication of Linschoten’s famous book, the Itinerario, which contained detail information about routes and navigational conditions in eastern waters. The author had meticulously compiled these materials from Portuguese sources during his stay in Goa.
In 1580, Philip II of Spain conquered Portugal and subsequently closed the port of Lisbon to Dutch and English sailors in 1594. Before this, the Dutch had been obtaining spices from Lisbon and when the closure ensued, the Dutch were motivated to go to the East to obtain spices on their own.

The first Dutch expedition under the command of Cornelius van Houtman sailed to the Straits of Malacca, called at Acheh & then went south to the port of Bantam. Then they sailed East to Madura and Bali.

The native states were eager to welcome them for two reasons. The Dutch were rivals of the Portuguese who were enemies of the native states, and any enemy of the Portuguese was welcomed with open arms. The second reason was that any form of rivalry among the European nations increased the demand for the spices and the native states were, therefore, prepared to receive the Dutch wherever they went.
Consequently, more Dutch companies subsidized trading expeditions to the East, and in the years between 1595 and 1601, there were over sixty-five Dutch ships in twenty-two fleets which had embarked on journeys to the East.

However, the Dutch realized that the merchants of Acheh and the Moluccas were steadily increasing the price of the spices by playing off one Dutch fleet against another. The rivalry among the Dutch companies began to have a negative impact on the trade. As a result of this, all Dutch companies were amalgamated into the United Netherlands Chartered East India Company, popularly known as the VOC (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie) in 1602. From then on, there existed only one price, which was quoted to all Dutch merchants.

The VOC was much more than a trading company. As the representative of the Government of Netherlands, it was given much sovereign power which encompassed the right to establish colonies, declare war, enter treaties and alliances with native princes and construct fortresses where necessary.

1.2.2 The Relationship between the Dutch and Johor Government
When Malacca fell into the hands of the Portuguese, Sultan Mahmud fled from the state and ventured to Bentan, one of the many islands of Riau. There, he established his new capital and resisted attacks from the Portuguese for a short period.
In 1526, however, he succumbed to their attacks and fled to Kampar, where he finally died. His son, Sultan Alauddin Riayat Syah II founded the kingdom of Johor and formed his new capital at Kota Tinggi.

After the fall of Malacca, Acheh appeared as an important trading port and strove to expand its empire into the Malay Peninsular and dominate economic and political affairs in the Straits of Malacca. Johor and the Portuguese in Malacca were equally ambitious. Because of this, the three powers were constantly waging battles with one another in what is known as the Triangular War.

When the Dutch first encountered Johor in the seventeenth century, the latter already regarded them as potential allies in its fight against Acheh and the Portuguese.

The Dutch on the other hand, were hoping to gain Johor’s assistance in launching an attack on the Portuguese fort in Malacca.

From the initial stage of the relationship between Johor and the VOC, both parties recognized the mutual benefits of co-operating with one another and consequently signed a treaty of alliance on 17th May 1606, in which Johor was to aid the Dutch in the capture of Malacca from the Portuguese.

If the Dutch succeeded in capturing the Portuguese city, Malacca was to be handed over to them, while the adjoining territories would be given to Johor, on the condition that the Dutch be given the right to extract timber from the jungles in these territories for shipping and defense purposes.

The Dutch were also to be granted a monopoly of trade with Johor and their merchandise free of any duty. To return the favour, the Dutch would allow Johor to obtain certain trading privileges in Malacca, which were denied to all the other local states. Although the Dutch refused to help Johor fight against Acheh, they promised to be the mediator for peace between the two nations should Acheh attack Johor. Following this, Johor and Acheh signed a peace treaty in 1641, which was initiated by the Dutch.

Johor’s assistance to the Dutch did not involve direct fighting with the Portuguese, but came in the form of other means, like the construction of trenches and batteries, the transportation of vital materials, preventing the enemy from fleeing into the jungles and also providing emotional support.

The Dutch attack on Malacca began in August 1640 and lasted for over five months, ending in January 1641.

1.2.3 The Policy Imposed By the Dutch in Malacca and Other Malay States
When the Dutch conquered Malacca, they had already formed their base in Batavia (Jakarta) in 1619. Using Malacca as a trading centre was the least of the many reasons on their minds. What they really wanted was to vanquish Malacca’s status as an international trading port and inadvertently force all merchants to Batavia.
To accomplish this, the Dutch increased tax on ships docking in Malacca. As such, during the Dutch occupation in Malacca, Malacca did not regain its former glory or become a separate trading unit.

When the Dutch opened other small trading posts in Selangor and Perak, Malacca became useful as a supply base.

With their control over Malacca, the Dutch also hoped to diminish any threats of rivalry from the Portuguese and British, by using it as a guardpost to monitor ships plying through the Straits of Malacca.
The Dutch also signed treaties with the Sultan of Perak, Kedah, Ujung Salang and Bangeri, which enabled them to monopolize the trading of tin and weaken the power of the local government and Malacca once again proved useful to control the Malay states abundant with tin.

FOREIGN POWERS IN MALAYA.

When we discuss foreign powers in Malaya, we shall begin with the Portuguese, the reasons behind their coming to this part of the world and their conquest of Malacca. This topic will end with the Japanese occupation of Malaya and their impact on society.
The Portuguese’ conquest of Malacca is the starting point of foreign colonization in Malaysia and paved the way for other foreign powers to extend their reign and authority.

The objective of this chapter is to examine the reasons behind the colonization of Malaya and the factors that led to this situation. In looking at the mistakes made in history, we see how a nation suffers under the tight reign of foreign powers and in doing so, we will be more able to prevent ourselves from repeating such mistakes.


1.1 The Portuguese
During the 15th century, Portugal heralded its Age of Discovery and became inexhaustible in its quest to discover foreign lands and expand its tiny kingdom. Initiated by Infante Don Enrique, popularly known as Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460), who encouraged his people to increase their knowledge and expand their trading activities to the Far East, the Portuguese embarked on countless missions by land and sea.
Their purpose, in addition to searching for "Guinea gold" and expanding their tiny kingdom to become one of the most powerful nations in the world, was to spread the Christian Gospel and reduce the influence of Islam in the East.
Since the 11th century, the Portuguese, who were Christians, had been battling with the Muslims in the Crusades War in Europe. The reason behind this war stemmed from the fact that the Portuguese wanted to conquer Palestine, the Holy Land of the Muslims.
This animosity waged on until the 15th century. By that time, however, Islam had spread to the East and garnered good response from nations in the Malay Archipelago like Acheh, Brunei & Malacca.
Burning with the anti-Muslim crusading spirit, the Portuguese were bent on spreading the gospel to the East and replacing Islam with Christianity.
The Portuguese also had another important reason to venture to the East - to search for Guinea gold - precious Asian spices which had become essential in their part of the world, in flavouring and preserving their food.
For a long time in Europe, Asian spices were sold at exorbitant prices, mainly because of its high demand and the countless number of middlemen in between, from the Muslim merchants of Gujerat & Malabar in India, to Arab merchants in Baghdad & Iskandariah and finally, to the Venetian and Genoese merchants in Italy.
Apart from that, the Muslims, who constantly traveled to and from South-East Asia, reaping high profits, dominated the trading of spices between Europe and Asia.
Keeping consistent in their animosity against the Muslims and fueled by their search for Asian spices, the Portuguese were intent on diverting the Asian spice trade away from the Muslims. The only way to do this was to stop obtaining the Asian spices from the Muslim Mamaluke Empire in Egypt and Syria, and instead, chart a new spice route around the Cape of Good Hope. The efforts of the Portuguese made them the first European nation that came to the South East Asia in search of Asian spies.
Another reason for the Portuguese venturing to the East is to search for the mythical priest-king, Prester John, ruling over a powerful Christian kingdom in, what was then known as, ‘the Indies’. They believed that with his help, they could conquer the Muslims in the East. In addition, since Muslims had dominated the route via land, they decided to find a new route by sea to the East.


1.1.1 The fall of Malacca
In the wake of the many explorations made by the Portuguese in the quest to spread the Gospel and obtain Asian spices, Malacca was recognized as the collecting point for the much sought-after spices of the Moluccas and also a centre where Islam thrived.
Hence, it became a prime target of the Portuguese. If the latter succeeded in conquering Malacca, it meant that they would be able to monopolize the trading of spices and simultaneously halt the spread of Islam through the preaching of the Gospel.
The man who succeeded in the capture of Malacca was none other than the famed Alfonso de Albuquerque, who was a key player in much of the Portuguese’ expansion efforts in Asia. After 10 days under siege, Malacca fell into the hands of the Portuguese on 24th August 1511.
Many factors caused the fall of Malacca. They include:

a) A weak ruling government
The golden age of Malacca, with its wealth and prestige, very much depended on its leadership, and one leader who especially shone through was Bendahara Tun Perak. After his death however, there was no successor capable of running the state of Malacca. Tun Perak’s successor, Tun Putih was old, weak and barely able to carry out his duties.
Following Tun Putih’s death, Tun Mutahir, who was elected Bendahara, was no better, being more concerned about his welfare than the welfare of the state.
Tun Mutahir also evoked the anger of the ruling king, Sultan Mahmud Shah, when the former married off his daughter, Tun Fatimah to Tun Ali, instead of to the Sultan. Because of this, Sultan Mahmud ordered Tun Mutahir executed when an enemy betrayed the latter.

The reign of Sultan Mahmud Shah as king is also another factor that caused the fall of Malacca. Sultan Mahmud paid no heed to the administration of the government. He allowed his officers to act as they pleased and this encouraged much bribery and corruption among them. When Sultan Mahmud descended the throne to allow his successor Sultan Ahmad Shah to reign as king, the administration of Malacca deteriorated, since Sultan Ahmad was young and lacked experience.
The weak ruling of the government had caused a decline in Malacca’s trading activities and forced many merchants to shift to Acheh, the other trading centre in the region
b) Hostility among races

When Tun Mutahir assumed the position of Bendahara after the demise of Tun Putih, Tun Mutahir, who was a Tamil-Islam, favoured his relatives and reserved important administration positions in the government for them.
Consequently, there was much dissatisfaction among the Malay Muslims and Tamil Muslims, and the racial tensions, which had mellowed to some point due to the wise and fair reign of Tun Perak, flared up again.

c) Disloyalty

Many of the foreign merchants who came to Malacca to trade did not believe loyalty to the government of Malacca. Some even backed the Portuguese during the attack on Malacca.
A Chinese merchant, for instance, provided on loan, 5 huge barges to the Portuguese while a Tamil merchant known as Ninachatu supplied information on Malacca’s defense system.
To make matters worse, the Javanese army hired by the government of Malacca abandoned the state during the siege, since they were not willing to die for a country which wasn’t their own.
The colony states under Malacca failed to back the state up and instead, seized the opportunity to free themselves from the reign of Malacca. Consequently, Malacca lacked military strength and aid.


d) The strength of the Portuguese army
Portuguese soldiers were better equipped than their Malacca counterparts and possessed advanced weapons, like guns and cannons. They were also led by Alfonso d’Albuquerque, who was capable and experienced in the battlefield. The Malacca army, on the other hand, used medieval weapons like the kris, swords, spears and lances. In addition, the Portuguese army was more disciplined and experienced in comparison with the army of Malacca.
All these factors demonstrate how important leadership is to a country. It can either lead a country to rise as a strong empire or cause a country to crumble. It also plays an important role in uniting people and unity among citizens of a country is essential in the formation of a strong government.
Apart from all these factors, we see that political stability is another prerequisite to ensure the expansion of a country’s economy.
If we can say that weak leaders like Sultan Mahmud Shah and Tun Mutahir were very much to blame for the fall of Malacca, then we can in turn, attribute the success of the Portuguese in becoming the first European power to find their way to the east and conquer Malacca, to capable and efficient leaders like Prince Henry and Alfonso d’Albuquerque.

1.1.2 The impact of Portuguese conquest on society
The conquest of the Portuguese, brought an end to the Malacca Sultanate and Malacca no longer played a role as the Islamic centre in South East Asia. This position went to Acheh and Brunei.
The Portuguese ruled Malacca for 130 years (1511 - 1641). Inter-racial marriages between the Portuguese and the local people in Malacca soon took place and resulted in the formation of a new society, known as Serani. They practice customs inherited from Portugal although they dwell in Malacca.
Another impact is seen in the Malay language, which has adopted Portuguese words like almari, beranda, garpu, jendela, tuala, palsu, etc. The Portuguese also introduced Roman writing, the joget, and a popular song entitled Jingkling Nona.
Trading activities in Malacca also dwindled when most of the Muslim merchants opted to go to Acheh, instead of Malacca. Finally, the fall of Malacca ushered the birth of 2 new kingdoms, Johor and Perak, which were established by the sons of Sultan Mahmud Syah.